The treated battery cases, electrodes and membranes containing electrolytes will be treated separately to improve the safety and recovery rate of hydrometallurgical processes and reduce energy consumption during the use of hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical recovery electrode materials. The goal of such socio-technical analysis is to identify key levers to successful implementation of a CE for LIBs and simulate the corresponding economic and environmental benefits at micro and macroeconomic levels. LCA and TCA have been found to be applied to, Recycling (Lander et al. The total number of publications of the pie charts for the different CE strategies from Refuse (R0) to Recover (R9) are 1, 10, 2, 16, 4, 7, 69, 66, 232, and 2). However, due to the high energy density, high safety and low price of lithium ion batteries have great differences and diversity, the recycling of waste lithium ion batteries has great difficulties. Furthermore, research has found direct recycling to be more viable at smaller, decentralized recycling scales (Gaines 2019), sensitive to impurities (e.g., Al and Cu), and may not meet exacting quality requirements for reuse of cathode materials (Chen et al. Improving durability (Cui, Xie, and Manthiram 2021). Neural Compt. 2017; Jung et al. 2016). (2005) reported a recovery rate of over 98% for Cu. Such techniques have begun to be applied to the CE (Walzberg et al. (2018). 2021). Advances in the recovering of spent lithium battery compounds. 2021). All authors approved this manuscript. 2020). 2014; Li et al. Those coming directly to the conclusion section might arrive with a few questions about the state of the science. doi: 10.1007/s00521-016-2262-3, Mossini, E., Macerata, E., Giola, M., Brambilla, L., Castiglioni, C., and Mariani, M. (2015). Given that our review captured over 3,000 publications, it was beyond our ability to include these topics. In the case of no recovery of electrolyte, the spent LIBs were disassembled, crushed and cleaned in the sealed box. Separate: In metallurgy, the fundamental principle of separation is to concentrate the liberated metals or minerals by further separating them from gangue (Al-Thyabat et al. 2020).
*Correspondence: Tao Du, dut@smm.neu.edu.cn; Wen-Bin Luo, luowenbin@smm.neu.edu.cn, Green and Sustainable Chemistry Editors Pick 2021, View all 2017; Reike, Vermeulen, and Witjes 2018) include consumer-based definitions for these CE strategies, so we included those definitions here for completeness. Manufacturer: Design of a product to be more use-intensive or circula (e.g., designing to be easier to disassemble or designing one product for multiple functions). 2015). (2020a) reported a laboratory-level life cycle assessment and economic analysis for cobalt oxalate from waste lithium ion batteries through acid leaching and roasting processes. Decision enablers include policy mechanisms, analytical frameworks, and technologies that can inform decisions and incentivize stakeholders when participating in the CE for LIB and PV systems. 2021). Clean. Is academic research the only area of activity in CE for PV and LIB? Since 2012, due to the development of EV markets, LiFePO4 and LiNi0.33Co0.33Mn0.33O2 have occupied more than half of the cathode material market. 2021; Chen, Shen, and Xu 2017; Zhou et al. As a hydrometallurgical process, bioleached metals are extracted by dissolving spent electrode materials with metabolites excreted by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi). Alternatives to lead-based solders (e.g., electrically conductive adhesives (Oreski et al. For example, publications solely discussing material processing improvements for lithium mining or how to recover lithium from wastewater generated in the LIB recycling process were not included as they could apply to other industries. Policy mechanisms include regulations, laws, voluntary standards, and guidance which can mandate, motivate, or incentivize various stakeholders to adopt a CE for LIBs and PV, and, conversely, sometimes through regulation or prohibition of linear economy options like landfilling. For instance, regarding recycling of PV modules in the United States, it is not known how many firms offer this service, nor their locations for collection and recycling, their capacity, the annual mass recycled, their process, end markets, etc. As another example, increased adoption of CE strategies such as reuse and refurbishment will decrease the volume of waste LIB being sent to recycling, thus potentially affecting economies of scale. Manufacturer: Recovery of energy from the end-of-life waste of a product (e.g., through incineration). Material constraints are projected to be even more acute for LIBs. Quantifies the extension of the lifetime (in units of time) added to LIB/PV resulting from a CE strategy, Quantifies the labor, in units of time, for a CE strategy, Level of industrial park, collaboration between PV/LIB industries, Quantifies environmental impacts considering the whole life cycle of a product, Analyzes components of cost for a process or product, Quantifies the efficiency and related concepts of a LIB/PV system or component after a CE strategy has been applied, Other quantitative analysis such as human toxicity, material flow, or facility optimization, Recycled PV or LIB materials used as input for the manufacturing of other products.*. A systematic literature review, Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review, Hydrometallurgical recycling of the semiconductor material from photovoltaic materialspart II: Metal recovery, Mapping the social dimension of the circular economy, Economic and environmental assessment of reusing electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries for load leveling in the residential, industrial and photovoltaic power plants sectors, Which came first, people or pollution? The state of health and state of charge of legacy and more recently installed LIB systems which could impact the choice of CE strategy. By closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. The variance in the SOH at the end of life, in addition to the diversity in the design and form factors (Groenewald et al. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2018.08.072, Chen, X., Ma, H., Luo, C., and Zhou, T. (2017). 2021), there is a lack of robust estimates of LIB waste volumes which account for. Note that the encapsulant is typically EVA, and Al/Cu refers to aluminum and copper inside of the module. 2021). Cost is a crucial determinant of manufacturing viability and consumer adoption, and identification of cost-intensive process steps (whether in recycling or manufacturing) can help prioritize research and development efforts.
2019; Dias et al. Hot Work Technol. Mater. doi: 10.1039/C5GC02650D, Chen, X., Fan, B., Xu, L., Zhou, T., and Kong, J. Analytical tools such as geographical information systems and operational research methods can be used to optimally locate reverse logistics infrastructure to minimize the impact of PV recycling (Choi and Fthenakis 2010a, 2014; Goe, Gaustad, and Tomaszewski 2015; Guo and Guo 2019; Ravikumar et al. AI and ML: Modern data methods can facilitate the CE strategy of refuse by aiding material selection decisions such as choosing alternatives to environmentally toxic and hazardous materials (Rajan et al. 2020).
Although there exist many commercialized LIB cathode chemistries, this review focuses on lithium ferrophosphates (LFP), lithium manganese oxides (LMO), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxides (NCA), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC). 2015) and AI-based diagnostic approaches (Haque et al. Third, research has focused more on lab-scale applications and will need to account for potential challenges that emerge in the transition to commercial scale. 2020). Classification of LIB and PV literature was performed independently by two reviewers: one focusing exclusively on LIBs and the other on PV. For instance, lead-acid batteries have one of the highest recycling rates of any product (99% in the United States) because it is required by regulation, landfills are not allowed to accept them, and consumers do not want a hazardous product in their homes (EPA 1985; SmithBucklin Statistics Group 2019). Similarly, extant research heavily emphasizes mass-based indicators, which is a traditional way to quantify recycling efficiency (Dodbiba et al. 2017). 2022) and agent-based modeling (Stevens and Supekar 2021), but are still limited. doi: 10.1007/s10163-020-01095-2. Annual count of the different LIB CE strategies which were reported in original research publications from 2000 to 2021. The diagram comprehensively tracks strategies across all life cycle phases to show CE material and information flows.
A distillation of pre-processing and metallurgical operations of selected commercial LIB (left) and PV (right) recyclers. 2021). The largest fraction of demand is for NMC, driven by the transportation market, with projected 2040 demand being more than double the second highest chemistry, LFP. According to the physical properties of the materials in the spent LIBs, including morphology, density, and magnetism, etc. While important in their own right, effort indicators can be valuable inputs to make TEAs more accurate and impactful. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: recent advances and perspectives. 2021), resistors (Samarukha 2020), solutions (e.g., discharging in 5% water solution of Na2CO3 and metal powder) (Samarukha 2020), cryogenic treatment (Yu et al. Hydrometallurgy 108, 220225. 2017)).
Many organic electrolytes and heavy metal ions have been released into groundwater by battery abandonment and leakage and have proved to be harmful to human health and the ecological environment. 11 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, The Methods of Recovering Lithium Ion Batteries, https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.578044, https://www.zsw-bw.de/en/media-center/data-service.html#c8750, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201707/543308.html, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 2019), Akk= Akuuser (Pudas, Erkkila, and Viljamaa 2011; Akuuser 2021; Harper et al. Recovery of metal values from spent lithium-ion batteries with chemical deposition and solvent extraction. 2017), which is the most dominant CE strategy for PV (Figure 17). In refurbishing, the LIB is collected, restored to its original working condition, and then used in its original application (Green Car Reports 2018; Spiers New Technologies 2021). In the early 1990s, Moli and Sony used carbon materials with graphite structure to replace metal lithium anodes, and lithium and transition metal composite oxide such as LiCoO2 served as the cathodes, leading to the commercialization of LIBs (Arora et al., 1998; Song et al., 1999; Lee and Lee, 2000; Pattipati et al., 2014). J. One or more can be skipped based on the process adopted by the LIB recycler. 2019).
First, because we know that humans (both individuals and within groups) do not use economic rationality or policy prescription solely to make decisions, techniques have been developed within the field of complex systems science to study and better model behavior.
Results for the low and medium scenarios from the International Energy Agency and the high scenario from the Institute for Sustainable Futures of the University of Technology Sydney are shown, where medium is the baseline scenario (see SI Section S2.1 for more information). Specifically for LIBs, the term reuse is often used instead of repurpose when defining the process of using decommissioned electric vehicle batteries in stationary energy storage applications (Cusenza et al. The increasing focus over time on recovering Si (Figure 19 (b)) can be attributed to solar-grade Si representing 25% of the cost (VDMA 2019) and 4050% of the embodied energy of a Si PV panel (Peng, Lu, and Yang 2013). Thus, we observe a need for more integrated analyses across more than one CE pathway to inform decisions about trade-offs. 2019), the anode foil, and the anode (Cao et al. 2015). Third, of the few reviews that both consider multiple CE strategies and are systematic, ours is the only review that simultaneously: Analyzes reviewed literature quantitatively. (B) Pyrometallurgical process. Optimize the location of LIB recycling facilities (Hendrickson et al. Cryogenic (Dassisti, Florio, and Maddalena 2017). In the past few years, with the development of energy storage industry, LIBs with higher energy density and higher power output have been widely used in EVs. 2021). Current commercial lithium ion batteries mainly contain transition metal oxides or phosphates, aluminum, copper, graphite, organic electrolytes containing harmful lithium salts, and other chemicals. For instance, air pollution from the recycling of LIBs can negatively impact adjacent neighborhoods, and has a greater impact on public health as population density increases (Hendrickson et al. Recovery of valuable metals from waste cathode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries using mild phosphoric acid. Preliminary estimates suggest that 80% of decommissioned PV modules are younger than 4years from the date of manufacture, and that 4555% of these modules can be repaired or refurbished (Tsanakas et al. errorsinLIBclassification+errorsinPVclassificationLIBclassifiersLIBpublicationsverified+PVclassifiersPVpublicationsverified. In addition, because oxalic acid solutions are reductive, no additional reductants are required. 2015), which will increase profitability and social acceptance for the CE for PV. It is important to note that the degree of separation and the form in which a material is recovered varies based on the process used. Yes. In the EOL phase, ML and AI have been shown to improve computer vision algorithms helping streamline and automate the LIB waste management and recycling processes (Harper et al. Firms that recycle or upgrade/purify specialized materials contained in LIB and PV (e.g., semiconductor-grade Cd and Te for thin film PV, cathode materials for LIBs). This could be due to a variation in factors such as LIB chemistry, recycling energy requirements, recycling process parameters, recovery efficiencies of the three different recycling technologies, and grid mix of the electricity used in recycling (Ciez and Whitacre 2019). 2011); and (2) recover and reuse silicon from kerf (Li et al. 2014; Samarukha 2020; Velzquez et al. Moreover, because a CE is a completely different economic model from current, it will be challenging to achieve even with the necessary effort of all corners of industry, government, civil society, and individuals. This critical review embarked to understand the status, challenges, and opportunities of a CE for LIB and PV. Manufacturer: Restoration of defective, broken, or malfunctioning components with the overall goal of extending the lifetime of the product. However, all of these non-technological aspects are significantly understudied even for recycling, but especially for other CE strategies compared to the development of technologies and characterization of their technical performance. 2020; Nirmale, Kale, and Varma 2017; Zhao et al. Novel approach to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion battery using oxalic acid. Improve recycling technologies. 281, 418427. In this first step, the LIB is crushed and reduced in size into a mixture consisting of a coarse fraction (steel casing, plastics, metal foils) and a fine product called black mass (Wang, Gaustad, and Babbitt 2016), which consists of electrode materials (metal oxides) and carbon (Harper et al. 2018; Samarukha 2020). Primary pathways include the use of machine learning, artificial intelligence, or automation in the design and use of a product or process (e.g., facility optimization, selection of materials, automation of manufacturing), as well as product labelling, real-time monitoring, alternative business models (e.g., product-service systems (PSS)), computer-based tools to design a product to enable circularity, and other technology-specific pathways. 2021; Heide et al. and start again. 2016; Lee et al. doi: 10.1039/c7gc03376a, Yu, M., Zhang, Z., Xue, F., Yang, B., Guo, G., and Qiu, J. 38, 7984. 2006, Tang, Zhang et al. However, it is not clear whether the recycled material will achieve the long-term properties of the new material.
2014), Directing research and development toward areas which generate the greatest improvements in CE strategies (Wender et al. Manufacturer: Disassembly and processing of a product into components of which one or more are reused in a product with the same functionality. Obtaining robust estimates of employment opportunities through PV recycling is especially important as PV is one of the fastest growing job creating sectors in the United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2021). (n= 332; note that for the pie charts, a given publication may report multiple chemistries. Figure 20.
Without affecting P or A, a reduction in impact requires changes to T. While many candidate technologies could address the above-named challenges, we focus on clean energy technologies, which are typically identified as being among the least-cost approaches to energy sector decarbonization. 
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